22/8/26
Washington had set the precedent for a president having only 2 terms. He also said that the US should keep out European affairs. Thus steer clear of permanent alliances. The Unions failure to put down the confederate Rebellion brought European intervention into the American conflict. The peace of Appomattox and gradual reunification of the States led to a mighty economic expansion. Affluent Americans started travelling to Europe in far lager numbers. The Spanish War resulted in the US getting the Philippines and Guam a first taste of an overseas Empire. The Russian-Japanese war in 1904 was solved by Teddy Roosevelt negotiating peace, at Portsmouth, New Hampshire in 1906. In 1907 this was the first US president to win the Noble Peace Prize.
Truman had a voracious appetite for reading and his historical knowledge gave him a perspective that other around him lacked. Truman became the greatest foreign policy president of the postwar era.
With WWI the military that had so quickly expanded contracted immediately and by 1940 it was only the 18th largest army in the world. With Pearl Harbour attack , Hitler had foolishly declared war on the US 4 days later. It was believed that with Japan and Germany defeated the US would retreat again behind it geographical fortification. 9 out of 10 Germans soldiers killed had died on the eastern front. 29 million Russians had perished in the war. The UK had lost 400,000 souls. The Soviets felt a understandable senses of entitlement and embarked on a policy of expansion. The starving disease wretched conditions bred communist influence with false promises.
Truman was the first Cold Worrier of the White House and set a continuity of policy. Despite most American being war weary in 1945. Many mocked FDRs VP choice as the "Second Missouri compromise. " "Or to err is Truman" "I'm just mild about Harry" and he left the White House with the lowest approval ratings or any President. He drafted disgraced former President Herbert Hoover to lead the US response to the European refugee crises after WW2. Bare subsistence meant hunger and hunger meant communism. He brought 150 years of isolationism to an end. Pax Britannica would now be Pax Americana. Truman believed history required them to create a new and more just world. The US at the time had a lot of diplomatic talent. George Kennan was convinced that Stalin had expansionist designs. Ambassador Averell Harriman Kennan warning found a receptive audience. Kennan sent a long telegram that urged both a military and economic aid program. Half measures should not be attempted. 2 years after the allied victory they were in a fight with a former ally.
1941 April Italian troops invaded Albania and king Zog and his family fled to Greece. In northern Greece the Greek National army forced the Italian back into Albania. British Troops arrived in 1941 March. The Germans attacked Yugoslavia and invaded Greece at the same time. Greece swiftly capitulated, and Greek King George II fled to Cairo. The British here slowed the pace of the German invasion which delayed Hitler Russian Invasion till late June late enough that the Russian winter helped contribute to the German defeat.
The Greek Civil War became a flash point between the world powers. In a place that guerillas could move across borders. The Greek Communist Party had fought the German occupation. Churchill had pressed Stalin not to interfere in post war Greek settlement giving the Soviets a free hand in Romania. Attlee knew he had to back away from this long standing commitment as to attend to domestic affairs and America was required to take over.
1832 Greece won independence with British help. Britain sent a message to the US that Greece and Turkey should not be allowed to fall under Soviet influence. British could not provide financial help and they were on the verge of starvation. Turkey was vital for the Dardanelles and this would be placed on Truman's shoulders as the baton of world leadership passed to America. Just as Churchill had stood alone against Hitler now Truman stood alone against Stalin desires. If Greece went communist Turkey was in trouble. The Soviets had always been looking for a way to the Mediterranean.
1946 The midterms had been a crushing defeat for the Democrats, Republican controlled both chambers. 1947 Truman made General Marshall, Secretary of State. At Princeton , Marshall laid out some of the groundwork for policy changes, many would not realize the seismic change about to come in foreign policy. If the US did not fill the void created by the British the recent victory over the Nazi's would be squandered. A Soviet breakthrough could open 3 continents to Soviet Penetration. Vandenberg who had been an isolationist understood the unexpected change of but they had to turn 150 of foreign policy by 180degrees.
Harry Truman when he joined the army in WW1 was 33 much older than the average recruit. No President since Lincoln had arrive in the White house with so little formal education. As a kid he steeped himself in history. He said " the only new thing about history is the history you don't know". By the time he finished high school his father had gone broke so he could not go to collage. he hoped to get into West Point but his poor vision made him ineligible. Woodrow Wilson in WWI said the world must be made safe for democracy. Truman fought in the Vosges Mountains and the Argonne Forest. After being elected to be a Judge or commissioner he saw the widespread corruption but had a reputation for honesty. At 50 he became a senator and devoted himself to the New Deal. In 1939 Pendergast was convicted he had been at totally corrupt, he ran the political machine that had helped Truman in politics. When he died Truman went to his funeral despite being told it was politically unwise. In 1937 Truman had pointed out that they should be contemplating another war as conditions in Europe could explode at any time. He set up a Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program and became its chairman, he started finding extensive waste and fraud. By March 1943 this once obscure would man appear on the cover of TIME magazine. Truman had been reluctant to take the role of Vice President. He had saved the Government $15 billion. Elected he was dubbed the "Missouri Compromise." Vice President John Tyler became the first vice president to take over the presidency after President William Henry Harrison died in April 1841.
1945 June the landing on Kyushu to invade Japan would need 6 milling troops and cost half a million Americans. The incendiaries dropped on Tokyo killed 100,000 more than had died at Hiroshima or Nagasaki. Thus the enemy would fight to the bitter end. The war was projected to last till the end of 1946. Truman had never had any doubt that the atomic bomb should be used.
1944 October. The Dumber Oak Conference led to the creation of the United Nations General Marshall was at the Conference of Foreign Minister in Moscow and then had several meetings from Paris, London and West Berlin. He spoke to reporter of what was at stake here. "While Greece was deteriorating to a point of collapse" The British Empire could be cruel and exploitatively but had spread improved health care, sanitation, transportation and the rule of law. With England decline and her financial reserves exhausted the Soviets were on the march. The Man of steel was ready to move into British former colonies and clients, he had reneged on his promise of free election in Poland. This aggression was most evident in Iran where both Russia and Britain had occupied the oil rich state since 1941. The Soviets finally left left Iran?
An aircraft carrier was sent to Turkey and the Soviets backed off. The Greek PM Constantine Tsaldaris visited Truman as Britain had encouraged him to ask Washington for help, but left empty handed. A Greek peasant said 4 times in my lifetime my home has been destroyed , by the Turks , the Bulgars the Nazis and the guerrillas, Why should I build again. Potsdam Conference July 1945 to decide on the post war fate of the world. Sacrifices had been given to destroy Nazism, now was not the time to appease another tyrant. Churchill dismissed Clement Attlee as "a sheep in sheep's clothing."
Churchill now out of power received a letter from Fulton Collage , Missouri to accept an honorary degree and give a speech. The P.S. hand written and signed by Truman, asked him to come. This was a chance for Churchill to be with the US President and gain Truman's support for his post war vision in March 1946. The world leadership had passed from Churchill to Truman and the speech was what conceived the Truman Doctrine. Truman had long been a skeptic of isolationism.
America was now on the verge of a long term costly commitment, and Dean Acheson had the task on writing the speech. It did not mention that the Soviets were the enemy. The United States was not going into European politics and thus Truman had a great selling. Stalin was funding communist parties to undermine countries from within. The US should support Democratic countries that were endangered by the USSR. For Greece to survive to be a free nation it needed assistance yet the government was authoritarian. The Germans had destroyed more than 1000 villages and virtually all the railways. The UN at this stage was not a position to extend help required. President Truman sought to alter America's role in the world by leaving the cocoon of isolationism that had led to the rise of Hitler's Germany.
Millions of soldiers had returned home looking for jobs and American could finally enjoy the windfall of peace dividend, However Stalin's aggressive moves in Europe would eventually move American opinion Senator Arthur Vandenberg chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and a Republican supported Truman. He said it was the attack on Pearl Harbour that had ended isolationism. They would launch the US on a new positive foreign policy of worldwide responsibility offering a working alternative to totalitarian order The Truman Doctrine was the corollary to the Munroe Doctrine of 1823 at the time the US never had the military might to enforce the Munroe Doctrine and it was part of isolationism
A congressional hearing was held and Senator Vandenberg began by announcing that the American Legion 's commander supported the bill. Army veterans with a million member wielded immense influence. Members were assured that no troops would be sent to Turkey or Greece. But Communist Guerillas had to be put down. The promotion of stability and democracy would not lead to war.
The UN was set up to save further generations from the scourge of was as twice during their life time it had brought sorrow to mankind. Must promote economic and social advancement. However they knew that the UN could not substitute for the US leadership. Walter Lipman would introduce the term Cold War had already diminished the role of the UN. The Senate had rejected the League of Nations in 1919 but approved the UN in 1945. Henry Wallace was still in Truman's cabinet and was outspoken against the Truman Doctrine, 1938 Senator Taft had established himself as a conservative opposition to the New Deal. In 1940 was a Republic Candidate for president but lost to Wendell Willkie. Taft was worried that if the US takes the burden of Greece and Turkey they would neglect Poland , Yugoslavia, Romania and Bulgaria. Turkey was more pivotal as it controlled the straits to the Mediterranean, and if the Middle East falls within the Communist expansion repercussions with echo from the Dardanelles to the China Sea.
House members serve 2 years Senators 6 years. A house member represents 600,000 constituents, with 435 members crowded in.
1941 to 1943 Under German brutal occupation of Greece, the Germans had exported vast quantities of food to Germany and wrecked the havoc during their withdrawal. Port facilities and bridges were destroyed. and the Corinth canal was dynamited so only reopened in July 1948. Just 5 days after the Greek and Turkish assistance Bill was in Congress the Greek communist leader Nikos Zachariadis met Stalin who declined to offer direct aid. The US Bill would become known as the Truman Doctrine. The American press gave this a lot of support.
Truman's administration regarded Greece as vital to American Security. While Greece was dissolving further into Civil War. The Isolationist felt that the US servicemen could end up involved in a foreign civil war. The US never understood Stalin's intention. Already a Greek journalist said that this was a war between the US and Soviets fought on Greek soil. 200 military personal under the authority of US aid were sent. There was a kidnapping of thousands of children to a camps across the border in Yugoslavia, and this image of them being trained as guerillas inflamed world opinion. This caused UN to dispatch inspection teams to the region. The US made efforts to provide leadership and training for the Greek army. Then US general van Fleet led a team of 45 military advisers. Greek commanding officer were intensely political and but pushed them into a proper fighting force. The war dragged on with a lot of killing on both sides, but killing more communists, and Athens executed many guerillas. Through the cold war the US supported many regimes that failed to live up to American expectations.
The Truman Doctrine , Marshall Pan and formation of NATO helped Truman launch a revolution in Foreign Policy, Also the recognition of Israel. " If Jesus Christ could not satisfy the Jews on earth how the hell am I supposed to." On this Marshall , Loy Henderson and George Kenan were against. Clark Clifford a keen advocate of the Zionist cause supported Truman. The US support for Israel came 11 minutes after Ben Gurion's declaration of the State.
Attlee's strapped British Government wish to withdraw even small military commitments dangerously destabilizing. American entry with economic and military aid could provoke a Soviet response. Stalin soon began viewing guerrilla insurgency as hopeless and by 1948 Stalin was ready to cut support for the DAG ( Democratic Army of Greece or communist) The Soviets wanted to find vulnerable countries where they could expand without direct conflict with the US. The Acrimonious split between Stalin and Tito who was holding out the possibility for US aid and so distance himself from Stalin. The KKE or Greek communist party took Stalin side in the split and so Yugoslavia was unwilling to fund the guerillas, who became expendable.
1949 Operation Torch. The Greek Airforce with British Spitfires and rained napalm on the guerillas. Plus a armed assault drove the communist into the Grammos mountains and they were imprisoner when they crossed the border by Tito's new policy. They were defeated by the Greek army and the remnant melted away into Albania. Almost 80,000 died in this conflict and nearly a million lost their homes. Thus the Truman Doctrine in Greece was a triumph. Thus the American General James Van Fleet and Papagos formed an effective team that rallied the spirit of the Greek army. The Greek Civil War lasted from 1946 to 1949. The Irony is that the Greek leadership supporters had been collaborators with the Nazis or fled into exile while the communist had been the main Nazi resistance.
Aftermath The Truman Doctrine shaped US foreign policy for 7 decades. The principle of non interventionism had been changed and and led to worldwide crusades for freedom. Democratic President Woodrow Wilson's attempt after WW1 had led to personal and political disaster. Countries led by politicians hostile to democratic norms , a free press find themselves overwhelmed by events. Secretary of State Marshal on his mission to Moscow gave him an understanding that Stalin wanted to sow chaos in Europe and across the globe. He returned convinced that only a massive program of aid could shield Europeans from Stalin malignant designs.
The next 3 to 4 years food mainly from America and other essential products and other help or face an economic or political determination of grave character. So the Truman Doctrine was followed by the Marshall Plan signed 1948 April 3rd. $17billion in aid to the devastated war torn Europe. Western Democracies would now unite to resist the Soviet threat. Then the Berlin crises and so America and 11 European nations signed a mutual defense pact against Russia. Summer 1949 the North Atlantic Treaty was signed NATO started 1n 1949 with the US, Canada and 10 European countries 1950 North Korean troops supported by Moscow poured into South Korea. The war was now fought there under the UN banner. and ended in an armistice in 1953 after nearly 36,000 US troops had lost their lives.
The Truman Doctrine did produce the darker consequence of the Vietnam war and 2 decades of tragic foreign policy causing the deaths of 60 thousand Americans and about 2 million Vietnamese. Afghanistan and Iraq highlight the limit of American power. Many people in foreign countries yearned more for safety and security rather than freedom. The Truman Doctrine recognized that the Cold War had already begun. It was necessary to protect the wartime investment in WW2. This brief burst of cooperation in 1947 had made the Truman Doctrine but was soon forgotten. Henry Wallace , Truman's predecessor as vice president said that this foreign policy was dangerous. In 1948 the Dixiecrats withdrew from the Democratic convention. However Truman won the election with democrats retaking both houses. 1951Senator Arthur Vandenburg died, he with Truman had build the foundation of US national security policy that lasted 70 years. 40 years after Truman first became president the Berlin Wall fell. American had become Reagans city on the hill or FDR arsenal for democracy.
Trumps "America First" first struck a nerve with voters but his ignorance of history and lack of diplomatic skills, his hostility towards democratically elected leaders and admiration of autocrats. The German Unification and prediction of a "peace dividend" or the Soviet collapse was described as the "end of history". Harry Truman , George Marshall , Dean Acheson and Arthur Vandenburg set up a durable security structure. Harry Truman led American to a position of supremacy in the world, Clark Clifford called it "one of the proudest moment in US history. Churchill declared that the 33 rd. US President had saved civilization.
When a President died the Vice President took his place but the role of VP was left vacant till in 1937 with the 25th Amendment the President could choose his VP . The End of History and the Last Man1992 by Francis Fukuyama
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